Econ. 616 - Research Methodology

 Ethical Issues and Principles in Social Research

1.  Introduction

Research means a systematic investigation to include research development, testing and evaluation, designed to develop or contribute some information or generalizable knowledge.

Basically, the research methods are two types i.e. quantitative and qualitative. Where quantitative research results in generalization of knowledge, in which the researcher decides what to study and qualitative research is in depth study about an individual, social group, community, in which researcher relies on the views of the participants. Case study, observations studies, ethnography, interview, focus group discussion, survey are the major data gathering methods in both research methods.

Research is essential to the successful promotion of health and well-being. The dignity, rights, safety and well-being of participants must be the primary consideration in any research study.

An EU code for socio-economic research (2004) states: "The Sociological research community has responsibilities not only to the ideal of the pursuit of objective truth and the search for knowledge but also to the subjects of their research. Researcher has to take account of the effects of their action upon those subjects and act in such a way as to preserve their rights and integrity as human beings – i.e. ethical behavior."

Ethical decisions are required throughout the whole life of a research project and in all aspects of a study. Making ethical decisions nearly always involves facing a series of dilemmas. There is rarely one straightforward answer, and decisions need to be made on the basis of thinking about balancing some basic ethical principles, rather than ad hoc reactions to emerging situations.

The set of values, standards, and principles used to determine appropriate and acceptable conduct at all stages of the research process. A set of moral and social standards that includes both prohibitions against and prescriptions for specific kinds of behavior in research is ethics of research.

This paper aims to analyze different aspects, necessity, issues and principles of ethics while conducting social research.

2. Subject Matter

Ethical dilemmas are more likely to arise out of qualitative research, more so than in quantitative survey research. Because quantitative research relies on data, respondents to quantitative surveys (cross-sectional or longitudinal) and will not be experimented upon, but there are still issues of informed consent and protecting the privacy of participants.

They are empirical and theoretical and permeate the qualitative research process. The complexities of researching private lives and placing accounts in the public arena raise multiple ethical issues for the researcher that cannot be solved solely by the application of abstract rules, principles or guidelines. Rather, there are inherent tensions in qualitative research that is characterized by fluidity and inductive uncertainty and ethical guidelines that are static and increasingly formalized.

The way each profession serves society is continuously changing in accordance with society's needs and expectations and with the technology available for the delivery of a service. The ethical codes governing the manner in which a service is delivered also need to change. What has been considered ethical in the past may not be so judged at present, and what is ethical now may not remain so in the future. Any judgment about whether a particular practice is ethical is made on the basis of the code of conduct prevalent at that point in time.

Most professions have an overall code of conduct that also governs the way they carry out research. In addition, many research bodies have evolved a code of ethics separately for research. Medicine, epidemiology business law, economics, education, psychology and other social sciences have well-established codes of ethics for research.

As the code of conduct varies from profession to profession, it is not possible to provide a universal answer for principle of conduct. However, there are certain behaviors in research. Such as causing harm to individuals, breaching confidentiality, using information improperly and introducing bias that are considered unethical in any profession. 

Ethical issues may relate with research sponsorship, approval of access of data, respondents/subjects, dilemmas or benefits of research. Dr. Ruth Green noted informed consent with special consideration for minors, deception, need for debriefing, right to withdraw, confidentiality, safety and risk as the key ethical issues.

Ranjit Kumar relates ethical issues among the stakeholders of research i.e. the research participants or subjects, the researcher and the funding body. Collecting sensitive information, providing incentives, seeking consent, causing harm and maintaining confidentiality creates ethical issues to concerning research participants. To the researcher avoiding bias, provision or deprivation of a treatment, using inappropriate research methodology, incorrect reporting and inappropriate use of the information are the basic ethical issues. Similarly, restrictions imposed by the sponsoring organization and the misuse of information by the funding body also are the reason for ethical issues.

Research ethics is important to respect for participants, to minimize the unreasonable, unsafe or thoughtless demands that made by researchers, to share knowledge, to set the norms and common standard. An EU code of ethics for socio-economic research (2004) rightly remarks, "Ethics is a matter of principled sensitivity of the rights of others. Ethics say that while truth is good, respect for human dignity is better, even if in the extreme case, the respect for human dignity leaves one ignorant of human nature."

To address the ethical issues 'The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, in April 18, 1979 (The Belmont Report) presents three key area concerning with the ethical principles, which are as follows:

1. Researcher through informed consent distinguishes practice form experiment in both social science and medical science research.
2. Voluntary participation, informed consent, protection of privacy and confidentiality and right to withdraw without penalty creates the respect for participants, maximizing benefits and minimizing harms and equitable distribution of research risks and benefits are the basic ethical principles.
3. Application of Principles

Martin Stevens (2013) argues that respect for person, honesty, benevolence, do no harm and justice are the basic ethical principles and reciprocity, avoidance of double-handling, proportionality, independence, researcher-led are the basic principle of research ethics.  Similarly, Dr. Dodge (2006) also pointed autonomy, beneficence, non-malfeasance, justice fidelity are the ethical principles as referencing to the Belmont Report, 1979.

Not only the ethical principles are related with participants but also with the colleagues and the general public by honest reporting. So, ethical dilemmas may occur during and after data collection. Voluntary participation, harm avoidance, informed staff and subjects (purpose, method, use of research and level of risk), maintenance of confidentiality of information and anonymity of respondents, clear independence research to ensuring integrity and quality are the ethical principles as suggested by Kristi Winters.

3. Methodology

The study is descriptive in nature based on existing literature found in various books, journals, newspaper, articles, reports, and internet surfing. Because the study describes the different aspects, issues, principles of ethics in social research.  

4.  Analysis

Ethical concerns can take a variety of forms, and may arise at all stage of the research processes like selecting a research topic (need), gaining access approach, data collection (legitimate to expect of the people and role of the researcher), recording of data analysis and writing up (confidentiality and reporting). 

Any social research during its process and after the completion of the research, benefit and risk associated with it. The objective of the stakeholder especially the researcher is to minimize the social cost and maximize the social benefit.

The term risk refers both to the probability of a harm resulting from an activity and to its magnitude. Major types of potential risks in social research are physical risks (body harm, simple inconvenience), psychological risks (emotional suffering, breach of confidentiality), social risks (employment or social discrimination) and Economic risks (financial costs related to participation). On the other hand, a benefit refers to any sort of favorable outcome of the research to society or to the individual. In practice, benefit often stands for the combined probabilities and magnitudes of several possible favorable outcomes. Major types of potential benefits in social research are physical benefit (alleviation or comfort from suffering), psychological benefits (feeling of helping others, empowerment), economic benefit (financial benefits related to research participation) and benefit to science/society (generalizable knowledge, effective intervention and community improvement/empowerment). 

Martin Stevens noted covert research, breaking confidentiality, offering incentives; distressing topics are the example of dilemmas in social research.

Conflict of interest between researcher and the participants and between the participants, imbalance relationship between researcher and participants and in terms of ethical and ideological concerns, confidentiality and neutrality and sharing transcripts, relationship affecting intrusion, consent and allow equal opportunity to both parties through inclusion, influence and disseminating results are the major ethical challenges recognized by Dyadic Research in Marriage and Family Therapy: Methodological Consideration (2012).

Human participants, use of the products of human participants, animal participants, work that potentially impacts on human participants needs for ethical approval.

An EU Code of Ethics for Socio-Economic Research encompasses the following principle:

1. The research aims of any study should both benefit society and minimize social harm through balancing professional integrity with respect for national and international law. Researchers should endeavor to ensure that research is commissioned and conducted with respect for, and awareness of, gender differences; respect for all groups in society, regardless of race, ethnicity, religion and culture and respect for underrepresented social groups and that attempts are made to avoid their marginalization or exclusion and researchers should endeavor to ensure that the concerns of relevant stakeholders and user groups are addressed.
2. Researchers should endeavor to ensure that an appropriate research method is selected on the basis of informed necessary professional expertise support and the research process does not involve any unwarranted material gain or loss for any participants for the factual accuracy by avoiding falsification, fabrication, suppression or misinterpretation of data.
3. Similarly, researchers should endeavor to informed voluntary participation position with the consequences of research engagement to alleviate potential disadvantages for any individual or category of person and ensure that reporting and dissemination are carried out in a responsible manner where methodology and findings are open for discussion and peer review.
4. Any debts to previous research as a source of knowledge, data, concepts and methodology should be fully acknowledged in all outputs, all data are treated with appropriate confidentiality and anonymity and research participants are protected from undue intrusion, distress, indignity, physical discomfort, personal embarrassment, or psychological or other harm.

Dr. Dodge (2006) mentions some areas to focus for research ethics. They are (i) Precaution to ensure that participants are not subjected to undue harm or stress, (ii) voluntary informed consent with description of the nature of research, risks and benefits, confidentiality, compensation, information sharing, voluntary participation, (iii) confidential information through electronic database secure setting, (iv) deception that researcher may choose to hide from participants the true nature of the study by omission (withholding important facts from the participants) and by commission (lie to or purposely mislead research participants), and (v) reporting research results in a honest, accurate manner and researcher should give the proper credit (authorship) to those who have earned it avoiding plagiarism (copying other's words without proper citation, stealing someone else' ideas and intellectual property).

Community participation, partnerships, processes are key to ethical conduct of research. Some ethical concerns to the research community are: (i) the relationship between society and science clearly states that the research ideas originated for social benefit, but in some extent government and other funding agencies use grants to affect the areas researchers choose to examine;  (ii) professional issues of fraudulent activities (cheating and lying) by scientists are never defensible but partial publication for large research & duplicate publication for different audiences is sometimes acceptable; and (iii) treatment of research Participants ensuring that research participants are not harmed physically or psychologically with the right of information, access, choice, safety, privacy, respect and referrals/follow-up care. 

Adaptation of responsibility to society, professional expertise and standards, responsibilities to participants (voluntary participation, consent, confidentiality, protecting from harm), obligation to society, obligations to funders and employers, obligations to colleagues, obligations to subjects are the basic guidelines for ethical social research.

5.  Conclusions

• Ethical dilemmas are more likely to arise out of qualitative research, more so than in quantitative survey research.
• The way each profession serves society is continuously, the ethical codes governing the manner in which a service is delivered also need to change.
• Ethical issues may relate with research sponsorship, approval of access of data, respondents/subjects, dilemmas or benefits of research.
• Ethical issues related among the stakeholders of research i.e. the research participants or subjects, the researcher and the funding body.
• Research ethics is important to respect for participants, to minimize the unreasonable, unsafe or thoughtless demands that made by researchers, to share knowledge, to set the norms and common standard.
• Informed consent, voluntary participation, informed consent, protection of privacy and confidentiality and right to withdraw without penalty creates the respect for participants, maximizing benefits and minimizing harms and equitable distribution of research risks and benefits are the basic ethical principles.
• Any social research during its process and after the completion of the research, benefit and risk associated with it. The objective of the stakeholder especially the researcher is to minimize the social cost and maximize the social benefit.
• Covert research, breaking confidentiality, offering incentives, distressing topics are the example of dilemmas in social research.
• Human participants, use of the products of human participants, animal participants, work that potentially impacts on human participants needs for ethical approval.
• The focus area of ethics in social research are confidential information through electronic database secure setting, deception that researcher may choose to hide from participants the true nature of the study and reporting research results in a honest, accurate manner and researcher should give the proper credit (authorship) to those who have earned it avoiding plagiarism (copying other's words without proper citation, stealing someone else' ideas and intellectual property).
• Community participation, partnerships, processes are key to ethical conduct of research.
• Adaptation of responsibility to society, professional expertise and standards, responsibilities to participants (voluntary participation, consent, confidentiality, protecting from harm), obligation to society, obligations to funders and employers, obligations to colleagues, obligations to subjects are the basic guidelines for ethical social research.

References

An EU Code of Ethics for Socio-economic Research. Retrieve from http://www.respectproject.org/ethics/412ethics.pdf

American Psychological Association (APA) (2001), Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (Fourth edition), Washington, DC: Author.

Dench, S., Iphofen, R. & Huws, U. (2004). An EU Codeof Ethics for Socio-economic Research. Great Britain: British Library.

Dodge, Dr. (2006, January 17). Research Ethics. Retrieved from http://slideplayer.com/slide/7924724/

Green, R. Research Ethics. Retrieved from https://www.staffs.ac.uk/images/researchethicsadinov05_tcm68-21512.ppt

Kumar, R. (2011). Research Methodology (3^rd ed.). City Road, London: Sage Publication Limited.

Stevens, M. (2013, February 14). Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research. Retrieved from https://www.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/policy-institute/scwru/pubs/2013/conf/stevens14feb13.pdf

The Belmont Report. (1979, April 18). Retrieved from https://videocast.nih.gov/pdf/ohrp_appendix_belmont_report_vol_2.pdf

Torres E. C. Ethical Issues in Social Science Research. Retrieved from http://www.jirb.org.tw/DB/File/Download/970128-02_Ethical%20Issues%20in%20Social%20and%20Epidemiological%20Research_Cristina%20Torres.pdf

Winters, K. Ethics in Social research. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/3510191/Ethics_in_social_research

Wittenborn, K. A., Dolbin-MacNab, L. M. & Keiley, K. M. ( 2012). Dyadic Research in Marriage and Family Therapy: Methodological Considerations. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 39(1),  5–16.